Interest in the hippocampal formation and its role in navigation and memory arose in the second part of the 20th century, at least in part due to the curious case of Henry G. Molaison, who underwent brain surgery for intractable epilepsy. The temporal association observed between the removal of his entorhinal cortex along with a significant part of hippocampus and the developing severe memory deficit inspired scientists to focus on these regions. The subsequent discovery of the so-called place cells in the hippocampus launched the description of many other functional cell types and neuronal networks throughout the Papez-circuit that has a key role in memory processes and spatial information coding (speed, head direction, border, grid, object-vector etc). Each of these cell types has its own unique characteristics, and together they form the so-called “Brain GPS”. The aim of this short survey is to highlight for practicing neurologists the types of cells and neuronal networks that represent the anatomical substrates and physiological correlates of pathological entities affecting the limbic system, especially in the temporal lobe. For that purpose, we survey early discoveries along with the most relevant neuroscience observations from the recent literature. By this brief survey, we highlight main cell types in the hippocampal formation, and describe their roles in spatial navigation and memory processes. In recent decades, an array of new and functionally unique neuron types has been recognized in the hippocampal formation, but likely more remain to be discovered. For a better understanding of the heterogeneous presentations of neurological disorders affecting this anatomical region, insights into the constantly evolving neuroscience behind may be helpful. The public health consequences of diseases that affect memory and spatial navigation are high, and grow as the population ages, prompting scientist to focus on further exploring this brain region.

Objective - to investigate the neurophysiological basis of secondary generalization of partial epileptic seizures. Patients and methods - inter-ictal, resting-state EEG functional connectivity (EEGfC) was evaluated and compared: patients with exclusively simple partial seizures (sp group) were compared to patients with simple partial and secondary generalized seizures (spsg group); patients with exclusively complex partial seizures (cp group) were compared to patients with cp and secondary generalized seizures (cpsg group); the collapsed sp+cp group (spcp) was compared to those who had exclusively secondary generalized seizures (sg group). EEGfC was computed from 21-channel waking EEG. 3 minutes of waking EEG background activity was analyzed by the LORETA Source Correlation (LSC) software. Current source density time series were computed for 23 pre-defined cortical regions (ROI) in each hemisphere, for the 1-25 Hz very narrow bands (1 Hz bandwidth). Thereafter Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between all pairs of ROI time series in the same hemisphere. Z-scored correlation coefficients were compared at the group level (t-tests and correction for multiple comparisons by local false discovery rate, FDR). Results - Statistically significant (corrected p<0.05) EEGfC differences emerged at specific frequencies (spsg > sg; cpsg > cp), and at many frequencies (sg > spcp). The findings indicated increased coupling between motor cortices and several non-motor areas in patients with partial and sg seizures as compared to patients with partial seizures and no sg seizures. Further findings suggested increased coupling between medial parietal-occipital areas (structural core of the cortex) and lateral hemispheric areas. Conclusion - increased inter-ictal EEGfC is associated with habitual occurrence of secondary generalized seizures.

[Indapamide is a “second-generation” vasodilatatory thiazide diuretic. Its antihypertensive efficacy when used at a low dose is equivalent to those of the other first-line antihypertensive drugs. Unlike other thiazide diuretics, low-dose indapamide was not found to have any adverse glucose or lipid effects in previous studies, moreover, it decreased insulin resistance in patients with hypertension. The risks of hypokalemia and hyperuricemia were also substantially lower. In the large, randomized, placebo-controlled HYVET-study, low-dose, indapamide-based antihypertensive therapy significantly decreased the risks of cardiovascular diseases and mortality in elderly (age >80 years) patients with hypertension. According to new guidelines, indapamide is preferred to other thiazide diuretics for patients with hypertension associated with metabolic syndrome or diabetes mellitus.]

[Insulin analogues have been developed in order to overcome some drawbacks of human insulins. Switching from a human insulin-based basal- bolus regimen to once daily detemir could result in improved metabolism and increased safety of the therapy. We assessed the effects of switching from human NPH-insulin to once daily detemir insulin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with a basal-bolus insulin regimen. We evaluated the data of 1,474 patients with diabetes (age: 59.1±9.8 years, body weight 89.6±8.6 kg, BMI 31.6±5.4 kg/m2) in an observational, prospective, 24-week, multicenter study. All patients were treated with a basal-bolus regimen consisting of human NPH as basal insulin and a human or analogue insulin as bolus insulin. After enrollment, patients received once daily detemir insulin instead of NPH-insulin, while treatment with bolus insulin was continued. Patients were examined at weeks 12 and 24. By week 24, the mean HbA1c value, irrespective of BMI-categories, decreased significantly (p<0.0001) from 8.63±1.01% by 0.79±0.63%. Fasting blood glucose level decreased from 8.86±1.78 mmol/l to 7.09±1.31 mmol/l; p<0.0001). The target level of HbA1c (<7.0%) was reached by 194 patients (13.1%). The patients’ body weight decreased significantly by week 12 (-0.69±2.00 kg; p<0.0001) and by week 24 (-1.28±2.80 kg; p<0.0001). The changes were more pronounced in higher than in lower BMI-categories (p for trend <0.0001). The mean daily doses of basal insulin were increased from 0.28 IU/kg to 0.33 IU/kg while those of bolus insulins were not changed. The rate of severe hypoglycaemic events decreased significantly (p=0.048) from 2.95 [daytime 1.02, nocturnal 1.93] to 0.06 [daytime 0.04, nocturnal 0.02] episodes/patient-year. In patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with basal-bolus regimen, switching from human basal insulin to once daily insulin detemir results in a significantly improved metabolism, as well as fewer hypoglycaemic events and decreased body weight. Nevertheless, the low rate of patients reaching the glycaemic target implicates that some factors other than an appropriate basal insulin substitution have a role in achieving an optimal metabolic control.]

[Normal functions of the cell are based on the precise regulation of various genes. If this strict regulation and the hierarchy of genes becomes upset due to some flaws of the system, the result will be cellular dysfunction which may eventually lead to carcinogenic transformation. The two main challenges in the classification of cancers are the discovery of new molecular markers characteristic to defined disease groups and the classification of already diagnosed or new cases into existing groups. This precise classification may open the door to tailored treatment or project the expected outcome of the disease. Today, there is unlimited access available to the databases containing sequences and localisation of the genes within the confines of Human Genome project. It provides significant help for the discovery of chromosome abnormalities and systematic analysis of gene expression patterns. This is important not only to understand normal functions of the cells, but it also contributes to the identification of new genes that are characteristic to given disease groups as markers and that are potential drug targets. Until the second half of the twentieth century the study of the function and regulation of genes was based on step by step investigation of individual genes. The fact that the genomes of an increasing number of organisms have become identified in whole or in part, numerous new techniques have been developed facilitating the systematic analysis of gene functions. The aim of this study is to summarise the new, molecular based possibilities for classification, diagnosis and prognosis of cancers, as well as to summarise the results of these areas, primarily from the point of view of leukemias.]