[Infectious diseases and various infections are the major causes of morbidity and mortality in developing as well as in industrialised countries. Despite the advances in the past decades in our understanding of microbes, efficient treatment of diseases and preventive approaches, more than 13 million people die every year due to infectious diseases. In the past two decades, more and more new pathogens and infections diseases have been emerging and old diseases that were almost forgotten have re-emerged. There are many new diseases for which we do not have or have hardly any efficient antimicrobial drugs and no efficient vaccines. Despite an increasing frequency of multi- and panresistant microbes, the development of new antibiotics to be used against these infections is unlikely to occur in the near future. The big pharmaceutical companies have stopped the research of antibiotics. In this situation, the only option we have is to use antibiotics rationally and to take prevention and control of infections seriously, both in the outpatient system and in hospitals. Preserving the effectiveness of currently used antibiotics is in everyone’s interest and is everyone’s responsibility]

[Molecular genetics has become an indispensable diagnostic tool in a number of diseases. The most frequent thyroid tumours are associated with genetic alterations that might be used for diagnostic purpose in the future. Somatic mutations and rearrangements in BRAF, RAS family RET/PTC and PAX8/PPAR-gamma genes may occur in papillary and follicular thyroid carcinomas. Other mutations of the RET gene can be found in medullary carcinomas (in sporadic as well as hereditary types), whereas mutations of the genes TP53, RAS, and BRAF are associated with poorly differentiated and anaplastic carcinomas. At present, the most reliable diagnostic tool for the differential diagnosis of thyroid nodules is fine-needle aspiration cytology. However, the existing malignancy cannot be unequivocally proven in up to 10-40% of all samples. On the basis of previous results, genetic examination of fine needle aspiration samples from thyroid nodules can contribute to a more precise diagnosis and the timely removal of potentially malignant nodules.]

[Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is one of the most common gastrointestinal condition, which affects 10-15% of adults in developed countries. Recent observations have raised the possibility that disturbances in the gut microbiota and/or the accompanying low-grade inflammatory state might contribute to the etiology and symptomatology of irritable bowel syndrome. Some studies indicate that small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), as confirmed by hydrogen breath tests (HBT), is more prevalent in patients with irritable bowel syndrome than in matched controls without IBS. Although the data are conflicting, this observation has led to the hypothesis that bacterial contamination was the primary cause of IBS. As a consequence of this hypothesis, a lot of therapeutic options have found their way into the armamentarium of those who treat patients with IBS. These agents include probiotics, prebiotics, antibiotics and anti-inflammatory agents. This paper describes the various mechanisms by which changes in the gut flora might contribute to IBS and also discusses the efficacy and safety of antibiotic therapies, especially rifaximin, for treating IBS/SIBO symptoms.]

[Background: The primary goal when children with vesicoureteral reflux disease (VUR) are treated is the prevention of pyelonephritis and persisting renal damage. Continuous antibiotic prophylaxis (CAP) is usually applied to reach this aim. The selection of resisting pathogens is the major risk of CAP. The aim of our survey was to describe the patterns of pathogenic strains leading to pyelonephritis in patients treated with and without CAP. Patients and method: The pathogenic strains implicated in pyelonephritis were identified in 48 and 56 children below 1 year of age who were treated with or without CAP, respectively, between years 2006 and 2011. Results: Breakthrough urinary tract infections developing in the presence of CAP are more frequently (with about a double risk) caused by polyresistant bacteria compared to infections that emerged without CAP. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the prevalence of resistant pathogens was about 40% even in infants without CAP. Discussion: The pattern of pathogenic strains leading to pyelonephritis alters significantly even in the cohort of children below 1 year of age treated with CAP to prevent infections associated to VUR. The risk may be decreased through the rational use of antibiotics. To reach this goal national guidelines on VUR should be updated and the role of additional non-antibiotic treatment should be established.]